![]() Iodine has, however, significantly lost its ground in medicine after the discovery of antibiotics by Alexander Fleming in 1928 ( 2, 3). The history of its discovery and a comprehensive overview of the use of iodine in medicine were published in 1961 on the 150-year anniversary of the discovery of this chemical element ( 1). Since then, it has been used as one of the most successful disinfectants, whose antimicrobial activity has never been compromised by any acquired or natural resistance. Iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811. This knowledge will aid in the future design of new drugs against antibiotic-resistant infections. This study sheds light on unexplored bioactivities of iodine and the mechanisms of its antibacterial effect when applied in sublethal concentrations. The current work provides an insight into gene regulation in the antibiotic-resistant nosocomial reference strains treated with iodine-containing nanoparticles. The effects of released iodine on metabolic and regulatory processes in bacterial cells remain unexplored. This drug is currently under clinical trials in Kazakhstan against multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. ![]() An induction of antibiotic resistance reversion by the iodine-containing nano-micelle drug FS-1 has been reported recently. ![]() Combinatorial therapy in which antibiotics are administered together with supplementary drugs improving susceptibility of pathogens to the regular antibiotics is considered a promising way to overcome this problem. IMPORTANCE Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria threaten public health worldwide. Disruption of respiratory electron transfer membrane complexes, increased penetrability of bacterial cell walls, and osmotic and oxidative stresses leading to DNA damage were the major factors influencing the treated bacteria. It was found that the treatment of bacteria with FS-1 profoundly affected the expression of many genes involved in the central metabolic pathways however, alterations of the gene expression profiles were species specific and depended on the growth phase. Gene regulation was studied by total RNA extraction and Ion Torrent sequencing followed by mapping the RNA reads against the reference genome sequences and statistical processing of read counts using the DESeq2 algorithm. Complete genome sequences of these strains were obtained in the previous studies. These cultures were treated by a 5-min exposure to sublethal concentrations of the iodine-containing drug FS-1 applied in the late lagging phase and the middle of the logarithmic growth phase. The aim of this study was to perform a holistic analysis and comparison of gene regulation in three phylogenetically distant multidrug-resistant reference strains representing pathogens associated with nosocomial infections from the ATCC culture collection: Escherichia coli BAA-196, Staphylococcus aureus BAA-39, and Acinetobacter baumannii BAA-1790. The mechanisms of the action, however, remain unclear. Recent studies showed promising results on application of iodine-containing nano-micelles, FS-1, against antibiotic-resistant pathogens as a supplement to antibiotic therapy. Until now, there have been no reports on acquiring resistance to iodine. ![]() Iodine is one of the oldest antimicrobial agents. ![]()
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